Kamru (also spelled Kamroo or Kamru Khas) is a historic village in the Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, India. Located at an elevation of approximately 2,600 metres (8,500 ft) above sea level, Kamru sits on a hillside overlooking the Sutlej River valley and the town of Sangla, approximately 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) away.[citation needed]
History
Kamru served as the ancient capital of the Bushahr kingdom (also known as the Kinnaur kingdom) before the seat of power was moved to Rampur.[citation needed] The village's historical significance is evident in its architectural heritage and its continued importance as a cultural center in the region. For centuries, Kamru was the political and administrative hub of the local rulers who governed this remote Himalayan territory.[citation needed]
Geography and climate
Location
The village is situated in the Baspa River valley, a tributary of the Sutlej River, in the lower Kinnaur region. The surrounding landscape features terraced fields carved into steep mountainsides, apple orchards, and forests of deodar, pine, and walnut trees.[citation needed]
Climate
The climate is temperate, with cold winters that bring heavy snowfall and mild summers. The region experiences monsoon rains from July to September.[citation needed]
The most prominent structure in the village is the Kamru Fort (Kamakshi Devi Temple complex), a remarkable example of traditional Kinnauri architecture. Built primarily of wood and stone, the fort rises several stories and combines elements of Buddhist and Hindu architectural styles.[citation needed] The structure features:
Intricate wood carvings on doorways, windows, and balconies
A distinctive pagoda-style roof
Stone masonry walls at the base with wooden upper floors
Traditional Kinnauri construction techniques without the use of nails[citation needed]
The fort houses the temple of Kamaksha Devi (also called Kamakhya Devi), the presiding deity of the village and former royal family. The temple is an important pilgrimage site for the local population.[citation needed]
Traditional houses
The village contains numerous examples of traditional Kinnauri houses built in the Kathkuni style of architecture, which uses alternating layers of stone and wood.[citation needed] These earthquake-resistant structures typically feature:
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Culture
Religion
The village practices a syncretic form of religion incorporating elements of Hinduism, Buddhism, and indigenous beliefs. Besides the Kamaksha Devi temple, the village has a Buddhist monastery and several smaller shrines.[citation needed] Religious festivals and rituals follow a calendar that reflects this religious plurality.
The traditional economy of Kamru is based on:[citation needed]
Agriculture: Terraced cultivation of barley, wheat, peas, and potatoes
Horticulture: Apple orchards have become increasingly important since the mid-20th century
Animal husbandry: Sheep and goat rearing
Tourism: Growing importance as visitors come to see the fort and experience traditional Kinnauri culture
Tourism
Kamru has become a destination for cultural tourism and trekking. Visitors are drawn to:[citation needed]
The historic Kamru Fort and temple complex
Traditional Kinnauri architecture and village layout
Panoramic views of the Baspa valley and surrounding peaks
Authentic cultural experiences in a relatively preserved traditional village
Proximity to Sangla, a popular tourist town
Access to the fort typically requires permission and is sometimes restricted during religious ceremonies.[citation needed]
Transportation
The village is accessible by road from Sangla, which is connected to the larger road network of Kinnaur district. The nearest major town is Reckong Peo, the district headquarters. The region is accessible via National Highway 5 (the Hindustan-Tibet Road).[citation needed]
Conservation
Like many traditional Himalayan villages, Kamru faces challenges including:[citation needed]
Outmigration of youth to urban areas
Maintenance of historic wooden structures
Balance between tourism development and cultural preservation
Climate change impacts on traditional agriculture
Efforts by government agencies and cultural organizations aim to preserve the village's architectural heritage and traditional way of life while supporting sustainable development.[citation needed]
Rainforests in Malaysia consist of tropical evergreen forests found on both Peninsular Malaysia and the islands of East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak) on Borneo. These forests are part of the broader Malesia biogeographical region and are among the oldest continuously existing tropical forests.
The rainforests experience a humid equatorial climate with mean annual temperatures ranging between 25°C and 28°C. Annual precipitation commonly exceeds 2,500 mm, distributed throughout the year with peaks during the monsoon seasons.[1]
Flora
The forests comprise dipterocarp-dominated vegetation, with families such as Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Fabaceae being prominent.[2] Lowland areas support dense dipterocarp canopy trees, while montane regions contain oaks, laurels, and conifers.
Fauna
Malaysian rainforests are inhabited by species such as the Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni), Malay tapir (Tapirus indicus), and Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus).[3] Endemism is high in isolated mountain and island habitats.
Conservation
Extensive logging and agricultural conversion, particularly for oil palm cultivation, have led to deforestation. Both federal and state governments have designated protected areas and implemented forest certification schemes to promote sustainable management.[4]
Other source-to-text integrity issues; for example, the WWF source says very little about Malaysia specifically, only mentions Sunda tigers (Panthera tigris sondaica), and does not mention tapirs at all
Very short yet consistent paragraph length
Generic "see also" links, one of which is redlinked
C.B. Fisk, Inc. is a company in Gloucester in the U.S. state of Massachusetts that designs and builds mechanical action pipe organs. It was founded in 1961 by Charles Brenton Fisk (1925–1983), the first American organ builder to build significant tracker organs in the 20th century. His study of early American and European instruments led him to return to mechanical action and to set a new course for American organ building. He modeled his shop on collaborative enterprise, launching the careers of four other North American organ builders and providing the foundation for those who carry on the company he founded.[1]
About Charles Brenton Fisk
Born in Washington, D.C., and raised in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Fisk loved music and grew up tinkering with hifi equipment. He was a chorister at Christ Church on Cambridge Common where E. Power Biggs was Choirmaster. Charles showed such intelligence as a young man that when he was drafted during WWII, he was sent to Los Alamos where he worked for Robert Oppenheimer on the Manhattan Project. He was 18 years old. After the war he attended Harvard and Stanford, majoring in nuclear physics, and worked briefly at Brookhaven National Laboratories, but during his Stanford years decided to pursue a career in organ building.
He apprenticed himself first with John Swinford in Redwood City, California, and then with Walter Holtkamp, Sr. in Cleveland, Ohio, who was at the time the most avant garde of American organbuilders. He went on to become a partner and later sole owner of the Andover Organ Company. In 1961 he established C. B. Fisk near his childhood summer home on Cape Ann in Massachusetts.
Charles Fisk's style of leadership, modeled after the team of scientists he worked with on the Manhattan Project, involved his co-workers in the day-to-day decisions about the concepts and construction of the instruments. The same people who were drawn by Charles Fisk's ideas carry on his work and share their insight and experience with another generation of organ builders after his death in 1983.
About the company
Just two years after the installation of a major pipe organ in Auer Hall on Indiana University's Bloomington campus, the Jacobs School of Music acquired a second major instrument built by C.B. Fisk. The acquisition makes the school home to three Fisk organs, the largest number of instruments by the builder in any one location in the world. The third, known as Opus 142, is a three-manual, six-stop, practice organ installed in 2012 in the Music Addition practice facilities.[2][3]
The workshop attracted young co-workers who combined their talents in music, art, engineering, and cabinet making to build organs that redefined modern American organ building. Always experimenting, C. B. Fisk was the first modern American organ builder to abandon the electro-pneumatic action of the early twentieth century and return to the mechanical (tracker) key and stop action of historical European and early American instruments. The Fisk firm went on to construct what were at the time the largest four-manual mechanical action instruments built in America in the 20th century, first at Harvard University's church in 1967 (awaiting installation at a Presbyterian church in Austin, Texas[4]), then again at House of Hope Church in St. Paul, Minnesota, in 1979.
The company has also built a number of instruments based on historical organs, among them one at Wellesley College patterned after North German organs of the early 17th century, one at the University of Michigan in the manner of the Saxon builder Gottfried Silbermann, and a three-manual instrument at Rice University modeled on the work of the 19th century French master builder Aristide Cavaillé-Coll. The large four-manual dual-temperament instrument at Stanford University's Memorial Church uses modern technology to combine many different aspects of historical organ styles. The firm built concert hall organs for the Meyerson Symphony Center in Dallas, Minato Mirai Concert Hall in Yokohama, and Benaroya Hall in Seattle. In 2003 C. B. Fisk built a five-manual organ for the Cathedral in Lausanne, Switzerland, the first American organ to be made for a European cathedral.[5]
In its 50 years C.B. Fisk, Inc. has completed over 90 instruments in 23 U.S. states, Switzerland, Japan, and South Korea.[6]
Jewish Peoplehood (Hebrew: עמיות יהודית, Amiut Yehudit) – the awareness of the underlying unity that makes the individual a part of the Jewish people.[1]
The concept of Peoplehood has a double meaning. The first is descriptive, as a concept factually describing the existence of the Jews as a people. The second is normative, as a value that describes the feeling of belonging and commitment to the Jewish people.[2]
This is a dramatic paradigm shift in Jewish life, which is gaining increasing support within Jewish communities worldwide. This shift, from the classic Zionistic, Israeli-centered paradigm toward a more People-centric paradigm, a Peoplehood paradigm, call to put the Jewish People in the center and to ensure that the Jewish People, wherever its daughters and sons reside, maintains strong links to and with its nation-state, the State of Israel.[3]
Jews have been extremely effective in sustaining for over 2.000 years a sense of joint responsibility towards their people and its members. While the current reality seems very different than any prior time in Jewish History, part of the Jewish legacy is that of adapting to changing circumstances.[4]
The Origins of Jewish Peoplehood
Jewish Writings
The idea of the existence of a distinctive Jewish people or Peoplehood is biblical in its origin. Throughout the Torah, Prophets and Writings, Jews are variously referred to as a congregation, a nation, children of Israel or even a kingdom, all implying a connection among people.[5]
"And I will establish my covenant between me and you and your seed after you in their generations for an everlasting covenant, to be a God to you, and to your seed after you". Genesis 17:7/8[6]
"There is a certain people scattered abroad and dispersed among the peoples in all the provinces of thy kingdom; and their laws are diverse from those of every people". Esther 3:8[7]
"In each generation every individual should feel as thou he or she had actually been redeemed from Egypt". The Haggadah[8]
"Kol yisrael arevim zeh bazeh" – "All Israel are sureties for one another". Talmud Shevuot 39a[9]
Mordecai Kaplan
The first significant use of the Peoplehood concept was by Mordecai Kaplan, one of the most prominent Jewish thinkers of the XX century, who was searching for a term that would enable him to describe the complex nature of Jewish belonging. Once the State of Israel was founded, he rejected the concept of nationhood as it had become too closely identified with statehood, and replaced it with the Peoplehood concept.[10]
Kaplan’s innovative definition of Judaism as "an evolving religious civilization" illumines his understanding of the centrality of Peoplehood in the Jewish religion.
Describing Judaism as a religious civilization signifies the fact that the Jewish people have consciously sought throughout their history "to make its collective experience yield meaning for the enrichment of the life of the individual Jew and for the spiritual greatness of the Jewish people". The civilizational definition also makes possible the acceptance by Judaism of the principles of unity in diversity and continuity in change. It is moreover a reminder of the fact that Judaism consists of much that cannot be pigeonholed into the category of religion in modern times, "paradoxical as it may sound, the spiritual regeneration of the Jewish people demands that religion cease to be its sole preoccupation."[11] In the sense that existence precedes essence and life takes precedence over thought, Judaism exists for the sake of the Jewish people rather than the Jewish people existing for the sake of Judaism.[12]
Kaplan's purpose in developing the Jewish Peoplehood idea was to create a vision broad enough to include everyone who identified as a Jew regardless of one's approach to that identity.[13]
In Modern Jewish life
The intensive use by Jewish organizations of the Peoplehood concept and intellectual interest in the topic began in 2000. Major organizations such as the Jewish Federations of North America, the JFNA New York Federation, the Jewish Agency for Israel, the Israel Ministry for Education, the Diaspora Museum, the Avi Chai Foundation, the American Jewish Committee and many other smaller organizations are either introducing the Peoplehood concept as an organizing principle in their organizations or initiating high profile programming with an explicit focus on Jewish Peoplehood.[14]
Key characteristics
Alongside the use of the Peoplehood concept by Jewish organizations, there is a parallel growth of intellectual interest in the topic since 2000. The intellectual discussion asks: What is "Jewish Peoplehood"? What are the key characteristics that distinguish Jewish Peoplehood from other concepts?[15]
Areas of Agreement
The areas of agreement between Jewish intellectuals writing about the concept of Jewish Peoplehood point to three principles:
The three unifying principles of the Jewish Peoplehood theory:
A multidimensional experience of Jewish belonging – The concept of Jewish Peoplehood assumes an understanding of Jewish belonging that is multidimensional.
Rejection of any dominant ideology, which over emphasizes one dimension of Jewishness - Strong ideological frameworks that over emphasize one dimension of the larger Jewish experience are not an acceptable starting point for understanding how individuals connect to the Jewish People.
Focus on the nature of the connection between Jews and not on the Jewish Identity - Those concerned with the Jewish Peoplehood concept do not focus on the identity of individuals, but rather on the nature of connections between Jews. The concern is with common elements and frameworks that enable Jews to connect with one another both emotionally and socially.
In combination, these three principles imbue the Peoplehood concept with coherence and offer an added value to organizations that wish to create programs “that build Jewish Peoplehood” in a sustainable and measurable way.[16]
Different Perspectives
There are several variants of the communitarian position among intellectuals writing about Jewish Peoplehood. The common denominator is the desire to find common ground upon which connections between Jews are built.
The four distinct positions regarding Jewish Peoplehood:
Peoplehood as a common destiny.
Peoplehood as a shared mission with an emphasis on Tikkun Olam.
Peoplehood as a shared kinship and mutual responsibility.
Here are some examples of definitions by Jewish leaders and key thinkers, each offering a different way of understanding the Jewish Peoplehood concept:
Peoplehood is merely the interconnectedness of the Jewish People based on shared history, culture, tradition and religion… and yet there is something about being part of a People that goes beyond the dictionary definition.
Peoplehood is the combination of culture, religion, history and values under a Jewish umbrella that gives us a profound feeling of being connected to other Jews.
— Misha Galperin, The Jewish Federation of Greater Washington[19]
Peoplehood – the instinctive filling that one is a member of one Jewish People present around the world – is emerging as the new Jewish identity for the global age.
Peoplehood will not work as a rallying cry to the Jewish public, which is post-tribal in its inclinations and commitments. Peoplehood is, rather, an organizing principle to recalibrate and synchronize the Jewish enterprise and philanthropy. It is our future blue-print.
The following is an attempt by Jewish leaders to suggest possible directions for implementing Peoplehood.
The only historic metaphor is the Yavne process of adjusting Jewish Peoplehood to the Exile. Mainteining and strengthening Jewish Peoplehood in the 21 century will require significant self-remarking combined with continuity. More of the same, such as present patterns of education, will not meet requirements. Instead, crafting radically new Jewish People grand-policies is required to prevent decline and assure pluralistic thriving. Recognition of this need, acceptance of involved creative-destruction, creative policy thinking and adequate action capacities are just beginning to emerge.
— Prof.Yehezkel Dror, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem[22]
Today, the greatest challenge faced by the leaders of the Jewish people is how to find their place in contemporary trends, grab a ride on globalization and on modern means of communication, and to come up with proposals that will allow continuity in a non-Orthodox age, with Israel acting a bridge, a Jewish meeting point – as the State of the Jews and as the only place where the issue of Jewish continuity does not exist, and where Jewish education and Jewish culture are available to all.
Everybody in the Jewish world is worried about the Jewish youth who choose not to be involved in structured Jewish life, yet most organizations still do not use modern tools to attract them. Organizations should speak to youth in their own language: the language of the Internet, Facebook and Twitter. Their interest in the Jewish world can’t come only from synagogues, community centers or books, but must come from cultural events, blogs and social outlets where they can communicate and talk to their peers from around the world. With the influence of social networking, Jews don’t have to belong to a Jewish community where they live – they can find one on the Web. If we use our modern tools, we will attract more young Jewish leaders to our important work.
It seems to me that the School for Jewish Peoplehood Studies of Beit Hatfutsot is a very good start, and from there we should hope that similar bodies will be set up around the world just as centers of Holocaust studies have cropped up.
— Naama Sabar, The International School for Jewish Peoplehood Studies[25]
The concept of Jewish Peoplehood is so broad and encompassing that, perhaps, any effort to measure it and reduce it to quantifiable and comparable terms is destined to be inadequate. But that suggests we need to be bolder in developing ways of thinking that both express what we mean by Peoplehood and can be operationalized to assess how it functions. As Kurt Lewin famously said, "there is nothing so practical as a good theory". We need better theory and with it will come the means to understand how to reach our aspiration ideal of Jewish Peoplehood.
Jewish Peoplehood needs to be strengthened in the context of the times that we live in rather than based on the paradigms of the past. Jews need to connect with each other in the contexts that enable Jews to know and learn about each other in a real way, going beyond the images, stereotypes and propaganda that dominated the last 60 years. We need to create new kinds of networks, community bringing Jews together across the diverse divides around areas of common interest and concern, Jewish or non-Jewish, enabling relationships and mutual understanding.
^
Peoplehood Now, sponsored by the NADAV Foundation, editors: Shlomi Ravid, Shelley Kedar, Research: Ari Engelberg, Elana Sztokman, Varda Rafaeli, p.11
^The Peoplehood Papers IV, edited by Ravid S., United Jewish Communities, Kol Dor, The Jewish Peoplehood HUB, Tel Aviv, 2009, p.37
^The Peoplehood Papers III, edited by Ravid S., Serkin T., United Jewish Communities, The International School for Jewish Peoplehood Studies at Beit Hatfutsot, Tel Aviv, 2008, p.20
^Making Peoplehood Work: The Institutional Challenge, dr. Shlomi Ravid, The Peoplehood Papers II, edited by Serkin D,. Kol Dor, The International School for Jewish Peoplehood Studies at Beit Hatfutsot, Tel Aviv, 2008 , p.27
^The Peoplehood Papers I, edited by Corbin K., Fram Plotkin A., Levine E., Most G., United Jewish Communities, New York, 2007, p.38
This page is about the dietary supplement. For the protein apoaequorin, see Aequorin.
Prevagen is an over-the-counter dietary supplement marketed in the United States for memory and brain health. It is manufactured and distributed by Quincy Bioscience Holding Company, Inc., a company based in Madison, Wisconsin. The supplement’s primary active ingredient is apoaequorin, a calcium-binding protein originally isolated from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria.
Description
Prevagen is sold in capsule form and marketed primarily to older adults. Commercial formulations typically contain apoaequorin in doses ranging from 10 mg to 40 mg per capsule, along with vitamin D and inactive ingredients. The manufacturer has promoted the product as supporting memory, learning, and other aspects of cognitive function.
Ingredients
Apoaequorin – a laboratory-produced protein modeled after a photoprotein found in the jellyfish Aequorea victoria.[1]
Vitamin D – included in some formulations.
Inactive ingredients – excipients used in capsule manufacture.
Scientific evidence
Quincy Bioscience has cited a company-sponsored clinical trial as evidence supporting Prevagen’s claims. The study reported improvements in certain cognitive test scores in a subset of participants; however, the results were based on post-hoc analyses rather than the study’s primary endpoints.[2]
Independent scientists and medical organizations have questioned the biological plausibility of Prevagen’s proposed mechanism. Dietary proteins such as apoaequorin are generally broken down into amino acids during digestion, and there is no established evidence that intact apoaequorin crosses the blood–brain barrier or affects neuronal calcium regulation in humans.
Legal and regulatory actions
In January 2017, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and the New York State Attorney General filed a joint lawsuit against Quincy Bioscience, alleging that the company made false and unsubstantiated claims that Prevagen improves memory and prevents cognitive decline.[3]
In 2024, a federal court ruled in favor of the FTC and New York Attorney General, prohibiting Quincy Bioscience from claiming that Prevagen improves memory or brain function unless such claims are supported by competent and reliable scientific evidence.[4]
Multiple private lawsuits and class actions have also alleged that Prevagen’s advertising was misleading and that the product does not provide the advertised cognitive benefits.[5]
Regulation
Prevagen is regulated in the United States as a dietary supplement under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994. Under this regulatory framework, dietary supplements are not required to undergo pre-market approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for safety or effectiveness. Manufacturers are responsible for ensuring that product claims are truthful and not misleading.
Islamic Studies scholar, writer, scholar of Iranian studies, Arabic studies scholar, creator of artificial language, historian of religion, Italian translator
Alessandro Bausani (Rome, 29 May 1921 – Rome, 12 March 1988) was a scholar of Islam, Arab and Persian studies, artificial languages and the History of Religion, translating many works into Italian. He was one of the greatest Italian scholars of Islam, as well as a translator and commentator of one of the most important translations of the Qu'ran into the Italian language.
Both universities, and the Venezia were leading centres of Oriental studies, and his work drew great interest from students, created a school which is still today highly activity in studying the field of mystical-religious experience in the Islamic world , as well as study of Sunni and Schism. His work included the translation into Italian of the poetry of Muhammad Iqbal (Parma, 1956), as well as that of Nizami, Omar Khayyam and Rumi.[3][4]
He served as the President of the 'Istituto per l'Oriente in Rome.
Influence
Alessandro Bausani's influence was recognised by diverse communities. His significance as an Italian scholar was noted in his inclusion in the Treccani Enciclopedia Italiana.[5] His significance as a scholar of Iranian culture is reflected by the entry on his work in the Encyclopedia Iranica.[6] The value of his work in the field of Indonesian studies was noted in an obituary published in the Journal Indonesia Circle.[7] An obituary published in the Bahá'í Studies Review demonstrates the recognition his work gained in the religious community to which he belonged. A summary of the influence of his scholarship is provided by the obituary:
"Three years after his death, coinciding with his 70th birthday, the University of Rome published Yad-Nama. In Memoria di Alessandro Bausani ("In Memory of Alessandro Bausani") in two volumes, containing 74 articles by scholars from around the world on topics related to Islamic studies, the history of science, linguistics, and literature. However, Yad-Nama was neither the first, nor the last compilation of studies devoted to Bausani. Ten years earlier, on the occasion of his 60th birthday, a festschrift called La Bisaccia dello Sheikh ("The Bag of the Sheikh") was published, including 39 articles by his colleagues and former students at the University of Venice. It demonstrated the respect and affection that a younger generation of Italian orientalists felt towards him. And, in 1995, scholars at the Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli, where Bausani held the chair of Persian Studies from 1956 to 1974, a chair to which Urdu and Indonesian were later added, dedicated a volume of 35 studies to his memory, appropriately titled: Un Ricordo che Non si Spegne("A record that will not die"). And finally the journal of the Istituto Per L'Oriente in Rome published its volume 3, Nuova Serie (1998), with 9 contributions all dealing specifically with some aspects of the "Maestro's" own scholarly heritage."[8]
Senchal lake, located 10 km to the south-east of Darjeeling, is the main reservoir of potable water for the town of Darjeeling, India. The lake is located at an altitude of 8,160 ft (2,487 m) atop a hill. The hill also has one of the highest golf courses in the world. Senchal is a favourite picnic spot. A tourist lodge at Senchal provides accommodation to tourists.[1] This lake is a part of the Senchal Wildlife Sanctuary.
The Rapa fruit dove (Ptilinopus huttoni) is a species of bird in the family Columbidae, which includes pigeons and doves. It is endemic to the island of Rapa Iti in French Polynesia. The species was classified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN Red List in 2018 because of its small population and predicted continued decline.[2] The Rapa fruit dove primarily feeds on fleshy fruit. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and it has an extent of 30 km2. It is threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation and invasive species. Effective land protection and management could increase the quality of habitat for the species. Additional research into population dynamics and the impact of threats to the species can give a better understanding of the conservation practices needed.
Description and Range
The Rapa fruit dove is approximately 31 centimeters tall, making it a medium sized dove. It is a colorful bird, with mostly green plumage, especially on its wings. Its foreparts (head, neck, chest, upper back) have blue-gray plumage. It has a yellow lower belly with a rose-purple band below its chest feathers. A distinguishing feature of the Rapa fruit dove is its bright pink crown, located on the face between the eyes.[2]
This species is endemic to the small island of Rapa Iti in the Austral Islands of French Polynesia and has an estimated extent of 30 km2. The population was estimated at 160 individuals in 2017, with all individuals in one subpopulation. Surveys carried out in 1989-1990 found a population of approximately 274, resulting in a 42% decline in population between the two surveys.[2]
Ecology
The Rapa fruit dove lives in the remaining undisturbed forest fragments on the island and prefers an elevation between 40 – 450 meters. Rapa Iti has a tropical climate and the dove can be found in the moist lowland forests.[2] They prefer the most wooded areas but can occasionally be found in the Caribbean pine plantations.[3]
As indicated by their name, the Rapa fruit dove primarily feeds on fleshy fruit from the various trees on the island, as well as nectar from some flowers. There are many productive native berry trees on Rapa Iti to sustain the dove. While the strawberry guava is an invasive species and a cause for habitat decline[4], it is possible that it is also a source of food for the dove.[2] They eat while perched in the tree and pick or reach for the fruit. Since they are heavier than some other fruit doves, the Rapa fruit dove does not move out to the end of the branches, and instead must perform many contortions to reach the fruit.[3]
Conservation Threats to Habitat
The Rapa fruit dove’s decreasing population size is caused by habitat loss. It lives in the forests of Rapa Iti, but very little of the island’s original native forests remain. The destruction of the habitat was caused by logging, fires, and an increased need for grazing land for cattle and goats.[2]The quality of the remaining habitat has diminished since the introduction of the invasive strawberry guava from South America. When left unchecked, the strawberry guava can grow uncontrollably in dense thickets and wreak havoc on ecosystems, choking out native species that the fruit dove relies on.[4] Other invasive species, like feral cats, predate on the fruit doves and have been a factor in their decline.[2]
Use and Trade
Historically, the Rapa fruit dove was hunted for food by the indigenous Polynesians.[2] But an improvement in the standard of living on the island had ceased the hunting of the doves. Currently, they are not used for human benefit.[3]
Conservation Action in Place
While there are no plans for conservation efforts to directly increase the population of the Rapa fruit dove, the necessity of habitat conservation and restoration has recently become recognized on the island. In 2017, a project began with the goal of restoring the forests, controlling the growth of the strawberry guava, and controlling the populations of grazing animals.[5]
Conservation/Research Needed
Additional conservation efforts are needed to protect the Rapa fruit dove and the rest of the biodiversity on Rapa Iti. Ecological impacts due to humans are the main cause of declines and extinctions of birds in the Polynesian islands, especially Rapa Iti.[6] More land needs to be effectively protected and managed to decrease grazing pressures and exclude fires from upland areas. There also needs to be increased control of invasive species populations.[2]To directly increase the population of the fruit dove, an introduction to another island to establish a second population is recommended after the introduced mammals are eradicated from the islands.[6]There is also the option of establishing a captive population of fruit doves as a precaution. Education and awareness are needed for the local community to gain their support for creating protected land areas.[2]
Further research into the actual impacts of the threats to the Rapa fruit dove is needed. It is unknown how feral cats are affecting the population of the fruit dove, and if its predation is a serious problem for their survival. It is also unclear how the Rapa fruit dove uses the strawberry guava, if at all. Additional research into these factors can give a better understanding of the population trends of the fruit dove and help guide conservation practices on the island.[2]
Pusionella ghanaensis is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk belonging to the family Clavatulidae [1]. This species was formally described by Emile Dautzenberg and Philippe Dautzenberg in 1912 [1, 2]. As its name suggests, it is primarily found off the coast of Ghana, West Africa.
Description
While a detailed, standalone morphological description of Pusionella ghanaensis is not extensively available in common databases, general characteristics can be inferred from its genus, Pusionella. Species within Pusionella typically exhibit:
Shell Shape: A fusiform (spindle-shaped) to turriform (tower-shaped) shell [3].
Sculpture: The shell often features strong axial ribs and spiral cords, which can give it a sculptured or somewhat cancellate (latticed) appearance.
Aperture: The opening (aperture) is usually relatively narrow.
Siphonal Canal: A distinct, often moderately long siphonal canal is present at the base of the aperture.
Anal Sinus: Like other members of the superfamily Conoidea, Pusionella species possess an anal sinus (or posterior notch) on the outer lip, near the suture, which is used for expelling waste [3].
The original description by Dautzenberg and Dautzenberg in 1912 would provide the most precise morphological details for P. ghanaensis [2]. The shell length of P. ghanaensis is recorded as approximately 30 mm [1].
Distribution
Pusionella ghanaensis is a marine species found off the coast of Ghana, West Africa [1, 4]. This distribution places it within the tropical to subtropical waters of the Eastern Atlantic Ocean.
The species is likely endemic or largely restricted to the West African coast, particularly in the Gulf of Guinea region, which is known for its distinct marine fauna.
Habitat
As a marine gastropod, Pusionella ghanaensis inhabits the coastal waters of Ghana. While specific details about its preferred habitat, such as substrate type (e.g., sandy, muddy, rocky bottoms) or precise depth range, are not widely published, other Pusionella species are typically found in subtidal zones, often in sandy or silty sediments [3]. Given its distribution, it would live in warm, tropical waters.
Like most members of the superfamily Conoidea, species in the family Clavatulidae are predatory marine snails. They typically hunt other invertebrates, often using a venomous radula (a chitinous ribbon with teeth) to immobilize their prey. However, specific dietary habits or predatory mechanisms of P. ghanaensis are not detailed in readily available information.
Taxonomy
Pusionella ghanaensis is classified within the following taxonomic hierarchy [1]:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Gastropoda
Subclass: Caenogastropoda
Order: Neogastropoda
Superfamily: Conoidea
Family: Clavatulidae Gray, 1853
Genus:Pusionella Gray, 1847
Species:Pusionella ghanaensis Dautzenberg & H. Fischer, 1912
The original binomial name for this species was Pleurotoma ghanaensis Dautzenberg & H. Fischer, 1912 [1, 2]. This indicates that the species was initially described under the genus Pleurotoma, a broad genus that historically contained many species now distributed among various families and genera within the Conoidea superfamily. The subsequent reclassification into the genus Pusionella and the family Clavatulidae reflects the ongoing efforts in mollusk systematics to establish more accurate phylogenetic relationships.
Synonyms for Pusionella ghanaensis include [1]:
Pleurotoma ghanaensis Dautzenberg & H. Fischer, 1912 (original combination)
[2] Dautzenberg, P.; Fischer, H. (1912). Mollusques provenant des campagnes de la Princesse Alice dans les Mers du Nord (1910-1911). Résultats des Campagnes Scientifiques accomplies sur son yacht par Albert Ier Prince Souverain de Monaco. 37: 1-62, 3 pls.
[4] WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species - Pusionella ghanaensis (Dautzenberg & H. Fischer, 1912). (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=434834
Boyer F. & Ryall P. 2006. Two new Clavatulinae species (Caenogastropoda: Turridae) from Ghana. Iberus 24(2): 33–38
(Creator has disclosed AI use) Some of the clues include:
Plaintext [1], [2] citation markers; ChatGPT styles its citations in this way by default
Disclaimer about lack of sources — "While a detailed, standalone morphological description of Pusionella ghanaensis is not extensively available in common databases" and "specific dietary habits or predatory mechanisms of P. ghanaensis are not detailed in readily available information" — both paired with speculative statements about what other members of the family/genus are like
Overemphasis on significance, especially for routine topics: [The reclassification of taxonomy] "reflects the ongoing efforts in mollusk systematics to establish more accurate phylogenetic relationships"
Telna Inc. (founded as KnowRoaming in 2011) is a telecommunications company providing global mobile connectivity solutions.[1] The company initially gained recognition for its consumer SIM sticker technology that allowed travelers to bypass roaming fees. It later shifted its focus to serve communications service providers (CSPs), mobile network operators (MNOs), and enterprises with roaming, eSIM, and IoT connectivity solutions.
History
Foundation as KnowRoaming (2011)
Telna was founded in 2011 under the name KnowRoaming. Its initial product was a thin SIM sticker that automatically switched to cheaper roaming agreements when users traveled abroad.[2]
Acquisition of Telecom North America (2015–2016)
In 2015–2016, KnowRoaming acquired Telecom North America, which controlled the multi-IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) network the company had been using.[3] The deal enabled KnowRoaming to operate its own mobile core network and negotiate direct roaming agreements worldwide.
Transition to Telna Inc.
Following its infrastructure expansion, the company pivoted away from consumer products and rebranded as Telna Inc. to focus on enabling CSPs, MNOs, and enterprise partners to deliver global connectivity services.
Network
Telna operates a multi-IMSI global network that enables devices to switch between multiple carrier profiles based on availability, cost, and quality of service. By building its own mobile core network, the company moved beyond reselling connectivity and developed direct roaming agreements with carriers worldwide.[1]
Technology and services
End-to-end platform
Telna offers a connectivity platform integrating network infrastructure, roaming agreements, and cloud-based service delivery with eSIM provisioning and IoT enablement.[4]
eSIM technology
Telna emphasizes eSIM technology, allowing devices to switch between carrier profiles digitally without physical SIM cards.[5]
IoT connectivity
The company provides connectivity for Internet of Things (IoT) applications across industries such as transportation and logistics.[6]
Recognition and industry participation
In 2024, Telna was ranked in the Deloitte Technology Fast 50 Canada and the Deloitte Technology Fast 500 North America.[7][8] In 2025, Telna received first place in the ROCCO Innovators ranking for eSIM travel and roaming innovation,[9] and was awarded eSIM Trailblazer of the Year at the MVNOs World Awards.[10] Analyst firm Kaleido Intelligence has identified Telna as a notable provider in eSIM connectivity and management platforms.[11]
Telna has participated in GSMA events. At the 7th eSIM Summit in Prague (2024), CEO Gregory Gundelfinger presented on eSIM in IoT,[12] and at MWC Barcelona 2025 he discussed over-the-air eSIM management.[13]
Leadership
Telna is led by Gregory Gundelfinger (Chief Executive Officer) and Michael Neuman (Executive Chairman).[14]
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